This clay cylinder, housed at the UN Headquarters in USA, is inscribed in Akkadian* cuneiform script used in and

around 539 B.C.E. when Cyrus effectively routed the Neo-Babylonian Emperor, Nabonidus (536-539 BCE); thus extinguishing the dynasty. The cylinder was found in 1879 buried at the gate to Babylon, by an expedition under the auspices of the British Museum. The Museum later gifted it to the United Nations.

The cylinder is damaged in parts and parts of the inscription are missing. However, a large part of the cylinder is intact. These inscriptions are to be read in context of the society and beliefs of the relevant time and may in parts seem absurd or implausible today. In the text below, the missing parts are left open; thus “those who dwelt in … … … … …, all the kings of the West Country, who dwelt in tents, brought me their heavy tribute and kissed my feet in Babylon. From … … … … … to the cities….”

The first part of the inscription speaks of how and why Cyrus marched on and took Jerusalem. The story that emerges is thus:

Marduk**, the chief God of the Babylon pantheon of that time, is disregarded and demeaned by the rulers of Babylon and finally displaced by a new Godhead. With the destruction of Marduk, his worshippers were oppressed “he brought ruin on them all by a yoke without relief.” %%

In order to protect his worshippers, Marduk “seeks an upright king of his choice. He took the hand of Cyrus, king of the city of Anshan***, and called him by his name, proclaiming him aloud for the kingship over all of everything.” %%

Marduk, then, brings the land of Guti**** and all the Median troops under Cyrus’ rule and finds that Cyrus “shepherded in justice and righteousness the black-headed people… Marduk, saw with pleasure his fine deeds and true heart, and ordered that he should go to Babylon. He had him take the road to Tintir (Babylon), and, like a friend and companion, he walked at his side.” %% So, Cyrus enters Babylon with his troops and all of Tintir, Samaria (Sumeria) and Akkad cede to him and the worship of Marduk is reestablished.

Thus ends the first part of the cylinder. In the second part, the cylinder introduces Cyrus, his ancestors and progeny and speaks of his greatness. In the third part, Cyrus reads his charter. The rights and freedoms he grants can be explained in today’s terms by what we in India enshrine as ‘Fundamental Rights’ in the Indian Constitution — Right to life and limb, Right to follow an occupation of one’s choosing, Right to follow one’s religious beliefs, Right to Property, Right to live in place of one’s choice. He promises to penalize oppressors including his Governors and officers who disrespect ‘traditions, customs and religions of others’, ‘take possession of movable and landed properties of the others by force or without compensation’, ‘who uses unpaid, forced labour’, ‘slavery’ ‘penalizes a person for his or her relatives’ faults’.

 The text of the Charter forming the third part of the cylinder:

At the coronation:

“Now that I put the crown of kingdom of Persia I announce that I will respect the traditions, customs and religions of the nations of my empire and never let any of my governors and subordinates look down on or insult them. I will impose my monarchy on no nation. Each is free to accept it, and if any one of them rejects it, I never resolve on war to reign. I will never let anyone oppress any others, and if it occurs, I will take his or her right back and penalize the oppressor. I will never let anyone take possession of movable and landed properties of the others by force or without compensation. Until I am alive, I prevent unpaid, forced labor. Today, I announce that everyone is free to choose a religion. People are free to live in all regions and take up a job provided that they never violate other’s rights. No one can be penalized for his or her relatives’ faults. I prevent slavery and my governors and subordinates are obliged to prohibit exchanging men and women as slaves within their own ruling domains. Such a tradition should be exterminated the world over”

Post Coronation:

Cyrus read the Charter of Freedom out after he put on the crown:

Now that I put the crown of kingdom of Persia I announce that I will respect the traditions, customs and religions of the nations of my empire and never let any of my governors and subordinates look down on or insult them. I will impose my monarchy on no nation. Each is free to accept it, and if any one of them rejects it, I never resolve on war to reign. I will never let anyone oppress any others, and if it occurs, I will take his or her right back and penalize the oppressor. I will never let anyone take possession of movable and landed properties of the others by force or without compensation. Until I am alive, I prevent unpaid, forced labor. Today, I announce that everyone is free to choose a religion. People are free to live in all regions and take up a job provided that they never violate other’s rights. No one can be penalized for his or her relatives’ faults. I prevent slavery and my governors and subordinates are obliged to prohibit exchanging men and women as slaves within their own ruling domains. Such a tradition should be exterminated the world over. My numerous troops moved about undisturbed in the midst of Babylon. I did not allow anyone to terrorize the land of Sumer and Akkad. I kept in view the needs of Babylon and all its sanctuaries to promote their well-being. I lifted their unbecoming yoke. Their dilapidated dwellings I restored. I put an end to their misfortunes.

I am Cyrus, King of the world, great king, mighty king, king of Babylon, king of the land of Sumer and Akkad, king of

the four quarters, son of Camboujiyah (Cambyases), great king, king of Anshân, grandson of Kourosh (Cyrus), great king, king of Anshân, descendant of Chaish-Pesh# (Teispes), great king, king of Anshân, progeny of an unending royal line, whose rule Bel and Nabu cherish, whose kingship they desire for their hearts, pleasure. When I well -disposed, entered Babylon, I set up a seat of domination in the royal palace amidst jubilation and rejoicing. Marduk the great god, caused the big-hearted inhabitations of Babylon to … … … … … me, I sought daily to worship him.

At my deeds Marduk, the great lord, rejoiced and to me, Kourosh (Cyrus), the king who worshipped him, and to Camboujiyah (Cambyases), my son, the offspring of (my) loins, and to all my troops he graciously gave his blessing, and in good sprit before him we glorified exceedingly his high divinity. All the kings who sat in throne rooms, throughout the four quarters, from the Upper to the Lower Sea, those who dwelt in … … … … …, all the kings of the West Country, who dwelt in tents, brought me their heavy tribute and kissed my feet in Babylon. From … … … … … to the cities of Ashur, Susa##, Agade (Akkadian) and Eshnuna###, the cities of Zamban, Meurnu%, Der as far as the region of the land of Gutium, the holy cities beyond the Tigris whose sanctuaries had been in ruins over a long period, the gods whose abode is in the midst of them, I returned to their places and housed them in lasting abodes.

I gathered together all their inhabitations and restored (to them) their dwellings. The gods of Sumer and Akkad whom Nabounids had, to the anger of the lord of the gods, brought into Babylon. I, at the bidding of Marduk, the great lord, made to dwell in peace in their habitations, delightful abodes.

May all the gods whom I have placed within their sanctuaries address a daily prayer in my favour before Bel and Nabu, that my days may be long, and may they say to Marduk my lord. May Cyrus the King, who reveres thee, and Camboujiyah (Cambyases) my son…

Now that I put the crown of kingdom of Persia, Babylon, and the nations of the four directions on the head with the help of Ahura Mazda, I announce that I will respect the traditions, customs and religions of the nations of my empire and never let any of my governors and subordinates look down on or insult them until I am alive. From now on, till God grants me the kingdom favor, I will impose my monarchy on no nation. Each is free to accept it, and if any one of them rejects it, I never resolve on war to reign. Until I am the king of Persia, Babylon, and the nations of the four directions, I never let anyone oppress any others, and if it occurs, I will take his or her right back and penalize the oppressor.

And until I am the monarch, I will never let anyone take possession of movable and landed properties of the others by force or without compensation. Until I am alive, I prevent unpaid, forced labor. Today, I announce that everyone is free to choose a religion. People are free to live in all regions and take up a job provided that they never violate other’s rights.

No one could be penalized for his or her relatives’ faults. I prevent slavery and my governors and subordinates are obliged to prohibit exchanging men and women as slaves within their own ruling domains. Such traditions should be exterminated the world over.

I implore to God to make me succeed in fulfilling my obligations to the nations of Persia, Babylon, and the ones of the four directions.”

*Exact location of Akkad is unknown today but is perhaps aps, between Mari and Babylon along the Euphrates).

** Labashi-Marduk was the grandson of Nebuchadnezzar born of his daughter and her husband Neriglissar. Marduk was still a child when he became king of Babylon. Within nine months of his coronation he was killed in a conspiracy between Nabonidus and son Belshazzar with the court nobles. The meaning of Marduk as the true ruler is born out also by the text of the cylinder in its first part.

*** Modern city Tall-i-Malyan. Known to Sumerians as Anzan. Ancient Persian city in the Province of Fars (in South-western Iran), north of Shiraz and west of Persepolis. Archaeological finds at Tall-i-Malyan and early Elamite texts place it as one of the earliest, urban states of Mesopotamian region, the earliest capital of Elam (4^th century) and Persia (7^th century).

**** Guti or Gutians or Quti an ancient nomadic people from near the Zagros mountains. The exact location of these people is not certain (whether south or east of Babylon) and is also possible that the name does not refer to the same set of people in the various texts.  The fall of Akkad is attributed to conflicts with the Guti in the 3^rd Millennium BCE. The Guti formed the dynasty of Sumer and ruled over Sumer.

Under Cyrus, his general, Gubaru was made Governor of Guti

# Chaish Pesh: one who reveals light, day break.

## Modern Shush. Susa (Persian&Syriac), Shushan (Book of Esther), Susiane (Greek) in the Khuzistan (Iran) near the Zagros mountains between the rivers Kharkheh Kur and Dez, has witnessed empires grow and destroyed— Proto-elamite, Elamite, 1^st Persian, Seleucid, Parthian and Sassanian.

### Modern Tell Asmar is in Diyala valley, Iraq. Ancient city-state in central Mesopotamia. Sumerian culture and once its city.

% couldn’t locate.

%%As  more recent translation by Irving Finkel, Assistant Keeper, Department of the Middle East, British Museum

These embroidery motifs were often representations of either Chinese village scenes or the emblems of good luck in the Chinese culture or simply floral.

A few pictures of some of the more stunning embroideries copied from the original Garaas on more modern cloth tell the whole story:

FLORAL EMBROIDERY :

 Multicolour

  red again.

in blue.

FLORAL WITH GRAPHIC MOTIFS:

 graphic leaves

with doves and border with Pheasants.

STORKS:

 with the Phoenix

PHEASANTS in EMBROIDERY:

Pheasants and floral vines on Black in fine, multicolored embroidery.Perhaps the most envied possession.

Roosters and hens (Parsi women had nicknamed this design “Marga-Batka”).

The pictures above are of copies of the original Garaas on modern day cloth and machine embroidered.

                                   ————- By Conservation Architect Sanaeya Vandrewala.

In earlier times, both Iranians and Indians were part of the same tribe identified as the Proto-Indo-Iranians belonging to the Indo-European family. With the roots in the Caucasoid, that is the Indo-European family, it then branches out to form the Nordics, Alpines and the Mediterranean. The Alpines bifurcate into Armenoids and the Iranoids that is the Proto Indo-Iranian family roughly around the 4^th Millennium BC. They wandered and settled on the southern Russian Steppes. After the passing of the 3^rd Millennium BC the group again divides into Iranians settled on the Iranian plateau circa 1200 BC and the other forms Vedic Aryans which then merge into the Indus valley civilization circa 1500 BC.

The ancient name of the country of the Iranian people has appeared in Avesta, is airya, airyana. This Avestan term appears as ērān, irān in the later speech. Hence, this term Iran was generally applied to the various land and countries to which the Iranian people migrated in their long history. In Latin, the name for the entire empire was Persia and was thus referred to in all western literature. Persia stems from Pars a province in ancient Iran. However, since ancient times the endonym for the empire has always been Iran. In 1935, during the modern history of the country, name Iran was internationally accepted and has been used ever since. In this text, Iran is addressed to mean ancient Iran, as in the pre-Arab conquest of 652 AD.

Pre-Achaemenian Iran

This period in the Indo-European family began in the middle of the 2nd millennium BC forming a national identity. Prior to this different ethnic groups had occupied the region namely the Elamites and Sumerians in Mesopotamia to its west having a strong influence in culture and religion of the region.

Immigration of the Medes and the Persians

Small groups of nomadic, horse-riding peoples speaking Indo-European languages began moving into the Iranian cultural area from Central Asia near the end of the 2nd millennium BC. Three major groups are identifiable the Scythians, the Medes and the Persians. The Scythians settled in the northern region of the Zagros Mountains and led a semi-nomadic life. The Medes and the Persians settled on the eastern side of the Zagros Mountains. During the 7th century BC, the Persians were led by Hakamanish (Achaemenes, in Greek), ancestor of the Achaemenian dynasty. His descendant, Cyrus II laid the foundations of the most extensive empire in the ancient world by combining Median and Persian forces.

The Achaemenian Dynasty, 550-330 BC

By 546 BC Cyrus had defeated Croesus, the Lydian king of legendary wealth and had secured control of the Aegean coast of Asia Minor, Armenia, and the Greek colonies along the Levant. Moving east, Cyrus took Parthia, Chorasmis, and Bactria. He besieged and captured Babylon in 539 BC and released the Jews who had been held captive there and favoured the rebuilding of the temple of Jerusalem, thus earning his immortalization in the Book of Isaiah.

His successors were less successful. Cambyses II conquered Egypt but was defeated in a revolt led by a priest, Gaumata, who usurped the throne in 522 BC but was later overthrown by a member of a lateral branch of the Achaemenian family, Darius I (also known as Darayarahush or Darius the Great). The limits of the empire were restricted to Asia Minor due to the defeat of the armies led by Darius to the Greeks at the Battle of Marathon in 490 BC to control the rebellious Greek mainland forces under his patronage.

The Achaemenians thereafter consolidated areas firmly under their control. It was under the leadership of Cyrus and Darius, who used efficient administrative planning and a humanitarian approach, established the greatness of the Achaemenians and established their strong hold and expanded to form one of the largest empires in the ancient world. Trading was well established and was widespread and under the Achaemenian rule, this was supported by well-organized infrastructure which in turn assisted the trades growth further. Other accomplishments of Darius’ reign included codification of the data, a universal legal system upon which much of later Iranian law would be based, and construction of a new state capital at Persepolis, where yearly tribute at the festival of spring equinox was celebrated with much pomp and splendour. Persepolis, in its art and architecture, celebrates the king and the office of the monarch and reflected Darius’s perception of himself as the leader of conglomerates of people to whom he had given a new and single identity. Achaemenian art and architecture found in Persepolis is at once distinctive and also highly eclectic. The iconography at Persepolis symbolizes the great artistic style of the Achaemenian art and architecture.

The Seleucids, 331-247 BC

Alexander the Great had envisioned a new global empire derived out of the fusion of Greek and Iranian cultures.

This he began achieving by the systematic accelerated the dissolution of the Achaemenian Empire. He was first accepted as leader by the fractious Greeks in 336 BC and by 334 BC had advanced to Asia Minor. In quick succession, he took Egypt, Babylonia, and then, over the course of two years, obtained the core of the Achaemenian Empire, Susa, Ecbatana, and Persepolis, the last of which he burned.

In 323 BC Alexander was struck with fever and died in Babylon, leaving no heir. His empire was divided among four of his generals. Seleucus, one of Alexander’s generals, who became ruler of Babylon in 312 BC, gradually re-conquered most of Iran. Under the command of Antiochus I, son of Seleucus’, Greeks occupies regions within Iran and brought Hellenistic influences in art, architecture and urban planning.

The Parthian Dynasty, 248 BC-224 AD

The Seleucids were constantly challenged from outside the empire by both Rome and Ptolemy from Egypt however the threat from within was the most damaging. In 247 BC the Parthian dynasty was established by Arsaces from the province of Fars who challenged the Seleucid governor. During the second century, the Parthians were able to extend their rule to Bactria, Babylonia, Susiana, and Media, while under Mithradates II (123-87 BC) Parthian conquests stretched from India to Armenia. After the victories of Mithradates II, the Parthians began to claim descent from both the Greeks and the Achaemenians. They spoke a language similar to that of the Achaemenians, used the Pahlavi script, and established an administrative system based on Achaemenian precedents.

In 224 AD Ardeshir son of priest Papak, the Parthian governor in the province of Pars overthrew the last Parthian king and established the Sassanian dynasty. The Sassanian Dynasty lasted 400 years till the Arab conquest.

The Sassanian Dynasty, 224-652 AD

The Sassanian dynasty was a unique period in the history of religion. Ardeshir Papakan (224-229 BC) as stated earlier was the founder of the dynasty. He started the unification of religion from diverse forms and practices into one monolithic structure. It was during this period that the rituals and practices went underwent a controlled change. The faith became suddenly alive because the rituals and ceremonies became understandable in the language of the day. Under Sassanian dynasty, the entire Avestan scriptures and Pahlavi commentaries were written in the new phonetic alphabet. During this period Zoroastrianism was strengthened, unified and enriched by an ever-growing body of dedicated and disciplined priests in service. Yazdegard III (632-651 AD) ascended the throne when the empire was going through a phase of the internal conflict. The Arab invasion (633-641 AD) caused the downfall of the Sassanian Empire thus bringing an end to the Zoroastrian control in Iran.

Following the invasion of Iran by Arabs, Piruz, son of Yazdegard III, escaped along with a few Persian nobles and took refuge in the Chinese imperial court. Both Piruz and his son Narseh (Chinese neh-shie) were given prominent positions in the Chinese court. The Chinese also assisted to restore a Sassanian to the throne on at least in two occasions in 670, but in vain. Narseh later reached the position of the commander of the Chinese Imperial guards and his descendants lived in China as respected princes.

Along with Mumbai, as mentioned in my previous article Sassanid Archaeological landscape of Fars region was also inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site last month. These various archaeological sites situated in different geographical locations in the Shapur I includes Firuzabad, Bishapur, and Sarvestan. Dating in between 224 to 658 CE these fortified structures, palaces, and cityscape belong to the earliest and latest times of the Sassanian Empire. Also included in this list is the capital built by the founder of the dynasty, Ardeshir Papakan, as well as a city and architectural structures of his successor, Shapur I.

As the UNESCO website observes, while the Achamenian and Parthian cultures and the art of Rome had an obvious influence on the entire archaeological site (it has made optimal use of natural landscapes); the site in its turn, significantly influenced Islamic architecture and artistic styles.

Bibliography and Citation:

• Boyce, M (1979) Zoroastrians: Their religious beliefs and practices. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
• Circle of Ancient Iran studies: http://www.cais-soas.com
• Karanjia, R. Ed (1999) Outlines of Parsi history, Zoroastrian religion and ancient Iranian art. Mumbai: Society for the promotion of Zoroastrian religious knowledge & education.
• Mistree, K (1982) Zoroastrianism: An ethnic perspective. Bombay: Khojeste P. Mistree
• Rivetna, R (Ed) (2002) The legacy of Zarathushtra: An introduction to religion, history, and culture of the Zoroastrians. Illinois: Federation of Zoroastrian Association of North America
• UNESCO world heritage list https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1568
• Image courtesy: UNESCO World Heritage Centre Gallery, Iran chamber society, Alamy.

——–By Heritage Architect Sanaeya Vandrewala

After attaining certain stability in Sanjan, the Parsis started settling in other towns along the coast of Gujarat. They settled in Navsari, Surat, Khambhat, Bharuch, Ankleshwar, and Tarapore while maintaining trade contacts with Iran. Records show that from 900 AD onwards the Parsis had settled comfortably in these towns and had become quite prosperous. Several years of peace, which had helped the Parsis survive and prosper economically and culturally were followed by 200 years of continuous disturbances. Despite these unfavorable conditions, the Parsis managed to keep their distinctive nature intact.

The most distinctive period for the Parsis during this time was the part played by Dastur Meherjirana in Emperor Akbar’s court of religious conferences (1570-1578 AD). During this period Navsari developed as one of the important centers for Parsi learning and culture. This was followed by the prosperous growth of other places as well. Surat was now being called as the City of Gold. Bharuch had become a well-known town, whereas Bilimora had transformed from a village into a thriving town.

In the 17th century, European traders started coming to western India. The port of Surat gained importance and the Parsis began to gain important positions in the East India Company. In 1661, as Bombay became a British possession, Parsis in due course became the mercantile elite of India. The success of the Parsi community was mainly dependent on its adaptable nature, lack of social religious taboos and command over the English language. The influence of Parsis on the Indian life was not prominent until the 18th century. By the end of the 18th century, a large population of Parsis had migrated towards Bombay. Parsis had merged with the Indian life and were doing well in various trades and businesses. By 19th century Parsis had become the foremost figures in Bombay establishing the first business houses in the country, they emerged at the local, district and regional level with social and economic gains that were elite based. Thus by the 20th Century Parsis along with other communities they played a major role in making Bombay the richest and the most important industrial and commercial center of India. Parsis also played an important role in the Indian freedom movement. Dadabhai Naoroji who belonged to the Parsi Zoroastrian faith was the first to represent India in the British parliament in 1892. Many other Parsis held important political positions even after independence.

The Zoroastrian refugees have come a long way. Their glorious years in Iran were followed by times of persecution, suffering, and turmoil. Their miraculous landing in India and absorbing a foreign culture, while maintaining their own identity as Parsi Zoroastrians, make it a true world culture today.

Parsi Zoroastrians have contributed in a large way towards the growth of the nation. Often starting from humble beginnings, they lived in great style but returned their wealth many-fold to the country. From shipbuilders to freedom struggle, from charitable institutions to business and enterprise; Parsis have helped not only theirs but other communities as well. They have contributed towards hospitals, schools, fire temples, trusts to promote education and fine arts extending their philanthropy to one and all. Parsis have been pioneers in industry hospitality and education. Among the earliest is the Wadia family for shipbuilding, Petit business house for laying foundation for the textile industry, Godrej business house for manufacture of household products, business house of Tata’s for industrial foundation, Dr Homi Bhabha for being the prime architect of India’s nuclear and space program, three baronets Sir , Sir Dinshaw Petit, Sir Cowasjee Jehangir and many others.

The story of the Parsi community is a story of victory of man’s undying spirit. The position and status achieved by the Parsi community have brought a strong sense of fulfillment in its members. Even though minuscule in number the community is a respected minority, advancing and achieving by merit and talent.

Mahatma Gandhi while once addressing a crowd in England in the 1940’s stated,

“I am proud of my country, India, for having produced the splendid Zoroastrian stock, in numbers beneath contempt, but in charity and philanthropy perhaps unequaled and certainly unsurpassed”. Even though dwindling in numbers, in this 21st century brings one hope for a revival of the community, which will help the Parsis rise back to a national as well as an international scene.

Bibliography:

•    Dadachandji F (1995) Speeches and writings on Zoroastrian Religion, Culture, and Civilization. Karachi:Ehtesham process.
•    Dhanjisa, S and Kamerkar, M (2002) From the Iranian plateau to the shores of Gujarat: The story of Parsi settlement and absorption in India. Mumbai: Allied Publishers/K. R. Cama Oriental Institute
•    Khan, R (nd) Insights into the Zarathustrian religion. Mumbai: Zarathushtri Trust
•    Rivetna, R (Ed) (2002) The legacy of Zarathushtra:An introduction to religion, history, and culture of the Zoroastrians. Illinois: Federation of Zoroastrian Association of North America

Installing the fire in a Fire Temple, a Zoroastrian place of worship is treated like the coronation of a Monarch; in fact the Consecrated Fire itself is addressed as “Padsha” meaning Ruler.

In a Fire Temple the installation of the Aatash Behram is a sacred and long drawn out process which may take anything from one to three years.  to begin the process of installing the ‘Aatash Behram’ in the sanctum sanctorum of a Zoroastrian temple, first the various kindling is collected (http://www.mumbaiblogg.com/zoroastrian-cultural-heritage/collection-kindling-for-fire-temple/) , ‘the fire resulting from each kindling is purified by prayers, consecrated and then enthroned in the Sanctum Sanctorum of a Temple with a proper walls and a roof.

Consecration of the fire called ‘Aatash Behram’ (Fire of Knowledge/Victory). (For meaning of Behram see Behram Yasht http://www.mumbaiblogg.com/zoroastrian-zen/avesta-translations/behram-yasht-translation/)

For the consecration, one needs a selected and segregated place in Pavi*,

Fires ignited from kindling collected from **16 different places (see table at the end of this article),

Are each placed in a separate afargan

At the start of the consecration ceremony, each of the 16 fires, are treated as under and each consecrated separately:

On day 1 of the Consecration, A pair of ‘Yaozdathragar***’ undergo the ‘Barashnum’.

The two priests take a small part of the fire from an afargan (a tall, large chalice-shaped vessel covered with a plate on which the fire burns the resultant ashes are stored in the cup of the chalice), containing one of the 16 purified but not yet consecrated fires and place this portion in a separate afargan.

Over this separated portion, the priests perform one Yasna (in the morning) and one Vendidad (at mid-night) along with a ‘Khushnuman’ to a particular Yazad who rules the particular trade from where the fire originates.* (See Table). Thus, on the first three days the Khushnuman the dedication is not to the same Yazad in all 16 cases.

To pray the necessary Yasna it takes the entire hours of the Hawan Geh (morning) and so also to complete the Vendidad takes the entire Hushain Geh (minutes after mid-night to dawn) of each day. Assuming that only one pair of priests was permitted to perform the entire consecration; it would take years (1,128 days approximately) to consecrate an Aatash Behram.

Therefore, pairs of priests pray in tandem so as to complete the process within a plausible time.

The small part of the fire which was segregated from the original afargan and prayed upon is further fed to increase its size.

Simultaneously, the fire in original afargan continues to be fed and kept alive and so also, is the fire which was consecrated on day 1.

On day 2, once again, a small part of the fire from the original afargan is taken and treated separately as done on the previous day.

Now there are three afargan, the original fire, that started on day 1 and the one started on day 2.

Once the Day 2 fire is consecrated, a small portion of the fire consecrated on Day 1 is added to the consecrated fire of day 2. All three afargans continue to be fed and the fires are kept alive.

On Day 3 to Day 30, the process is repeated so that on the 30^th day after the 30^th bit of fire is consecrated, 29 previously consecrated fires are added to it.

At the end of these thirty days, the process is repeated until the required number of days for the consecration of that particular fire is completed**. (See Table).

For example, the fire from the pyre of a burning corpse is to be consecrated 91 times. So the 30 day process of consecration with the Yasna and Vendidad Ceremonies will be repeated for another thirty days and thereafter for another 28 days, thereby totaling to 3+ 30+30+28= 91.

Each of the 16 fires is so purified and consecrated for the required number of days.** See Table.

All the 16 fires, thus consecrated, are each placed in a separate afargan and each afargan in a separate ‘Pavi’*. All the fires thus consecrated are continued to be fed and kept alive.

DEDICATION OF KHUSHNUMAN TO RELEVANT YAZAD:

As mentioned above, the consecration of fire requires the recitation of Yasna and Vendidad with Khushnuman to the relevant Yazad.

The Khushnuman for the first three days of the consecration are always dedicated to a particular Yazad who rules the particular trade** from where the fire originates.

It is not mandatory to start the process of consecration on the first day of the month; what is necessary that the first three days of consecration of the fire be dedicated to the Yazad who rules the trade-hearth from which the fire was originally lifted.

To understand better, the fire from the pyre is ruled by Hormazd. The first three days of prayers will be dedicated to Hormazd; from the 4^th day the Khushnuman will be dedicated to the Yazad whose Roj it is on that day. Assuming the 4^th day falls on Zamyaad Roj, the prayer ceremony will be dedicated to the Yazad Zamyaad.

The fire from the Dyer’s hearth is ruled by Boman. So, the prayers on the first three days of purification will be dedicated to Yazad Boman and from the fourth day onward will be dedicated to the Yazad of that particular Roj.

As a further example, the fire from the hearth is ruled by third Yazad, Ardibesht. The prayers for the first three days will be dedicated to Yazad Ardibesht.

Even with the priests praying in Tandem, The consecration of the Aatash Behram easily takes little over a year. The annual feast days like the days of Jashan (feast days) and Ghambhar**** are, therefore, bound to intervene. On such days, the Khushnuman is dedicated to that particular Jashan or the Ghambhar.

All 16 fires thus purified and consecrated   are placed one in each afargan, an afargan in each Pavi; so, now we have 16 fires in sixteen afargans in 16 Pavis.

UNITING THE 16 CONSECRATED FIRES TO MAKE THE AATASH BEHRAM:

Uniting these fires must be done on the 1^st Ghambhar (five intercalary days added annually to complete the Solar Year).

The unification is made in a huge afargan.

A pair of Yaozdathragar form a paean to seal off any pollution of the consecration,

Then, the Yaozdathgar remove with a ladle, the consecrated pyre fire from its own afargan and place it in the huge afargan.

Similarly, they remove each of the other 15 consecrate fires in order of their consecration (as stated in the Table*) into the huge afargan.

The 16 purified and consecrated fires are thus united in the huge afargan.

The huge afargan is then carried to the Ijashne Gah for the final consecration of the united fire.

CONSECRATION OF THE UNITED FIRE:

For the first three days, The Yasna and Vendidad are prayed over the united fire with Khushnuman to Yazad Sarosh,

From the first day of the immediate next month to the end of the month (Hormazd to Aneran Roj), each day a Yasna and Vendidad are prayed with Khushnuman to the presiding Yazad of that day,

Then, on the next day, which is the last day, another Yasna with Khushnuman to Sarosh is prayed over the united fire and a ritual performed.

The united fire, now consecrated, is then installed in the sanctum sanctorum of the Zoroastrian Temple or ‘enthroned’ (Takht-Nashini).

FIRE TEMPLE AATASH BEHRAM INSTALLATION :

 The Daityo Gah (proper place) itself, where the united fire is to be installed, is consecrated for three days prior to the installation by Yasna and Vendidad prayed with Khushnuman to Yazad Sarosh.

The actual installation is a very solemn ceremony conducted with great dignity like any princely coronation.

A Pavi* is drawn alongside the path to the Daityo Gah over which the united consecrated fire will traverse,

The path itself is also broken into several squares by Pavis,

A Pavi is also drawn around the center of the sanctum sanctorum where the united fire will reside.

The head priest leads a procession of all the Yaozdathragar who participated in the consecration,

Two Yaozdathragar carry the united fire,

Each Yaozdathragar in the procession holds either a sword or a mace in his hand,

During its journey to the Daityo Gah, no other Yaozdathragar will step into the same Pavi that is occupied by the united fire and the two priests carrying it,

The united fire is carried to the sanctum sanctorum and installed/enthroned in an afargan standing on a pedestal within the central Pavi,

The fire thus installed is fed with sandalwood and loban and an ‘Aatash ni Nyaesh’ in praise of the fire is prayed.

A Jashan (celebratory prayers) with three Aafringans, is performed in the hall of the temple,

The first Aafringan is prayed with the Khushnuman of Sarosh, the second with Khushnuman of Dahman and the last again, of Sarosh.

The installation/coronation ends with a recitation of the ‘Baaj’*****.

The Aatash Behram is now ready to receive and protect its laity.

* PAVI literally means ‘sacred’ or ‘consecrated’. In Zoroastrian rituals it is a permanently constructed space enclosed and segregated from its surroundings in by a ritual runnels carved in the floor to form a ‘Karsh’ (an intangible curtain of protection against defilement).

*** YAOZDATHRAGAR literally meaning ‘purifier’.  Yaozdathragar is a Zoroastrian priest who has undergone the rituals of ‘Barashnum’ and ‘Khub’.

****GHAMBHARs are the five intercalary days introduced in the Zoroastrian Calendar, annually, at the close of the year, to complete the 365 days of a Solar Year.

***** BAAJ= Literally means ‘framing’. It also, denotes a ritual silence; also a ritual utterance /prayer which frames an action with the power of the manthra; a high liturgical service . The monthly day (Roj) or the anniversary of death is also called ‘Baaj’.

Bibliography

The Religious Ceremonies and Customs of the Parsees by Jivanji Modi,B.A., PH.D., C.I.E., Fellow of the University of Bombay (1887), Dipl. Litteris et Artibus (Sweden, 1889), Shums -Ul-Ulama (India,1893), Officier D’Acdemie (France, 1898), Officier Publique (France, 1902), Campbell Medalist, B.B.R. Asiatic Society (1918).

The collection of kindling for a Zoroastrian place of worship  consists of the kindling collected from 16 different places (http://www.mumbaiblogg.com/zoroastrian-cultural-heritage/fire-temple-zoroastrian-worship/). (For ready reference Table at end of this article).

For a quick recap, collection of kindling for fire temple is from the pyre while the corpse is burning and 15 others from the hearths of: a dyer, a ruler, a potter, a brick-maker, a fakir or an ascetic, a goldsmith, a mint,  a blacksmith, one who makes armours, a baker, a brewer or distiller or an idol-worshipper, a soldier or a traveler, a shepherd, fire produced by atmospheric lightning, any Zoroastrian.

At every stage of the process of collection of kindling for fire temple must be conducted by a Zoroastrian and no other person. The procedure for collection of the fires varies in the case of each of the 16 places from where that particular fire is collected.

Collecting the fire, from a burning corpse is the most interesting, difficult and the longest process:

1) At a cremation grounds the Zoroastrian must find an active pyre and ask for a kindling from that pyre while it is still burning. If the person tending the pyre is unwilling and refuses to give some of the fire from the pyre, the Zoroastrian must wait till the cremation is complete and the relatives of the deceased leave. Only then must he collect some fire from the pyre.

2) He cannot help himself to this fire even at this stage. He must seek a non-Zoroastrian and ask him to give remove a portion of the pyre

and give it. In the event, such a person is not available, or, refuses to assist the Zoroastrian, only then is it permitted for two lay Zoroastrians to collect the fire for themselves. However, they must never under any circumstance collect the fire directly from the pyre.

3) The fire from burning pyre with the corpse still on it or soon after the corpse is charred, is considered defiled. Hence the injunction against touching it personally or even by way of an instrument.

4) The procedure for collection of this pyre fire by two Zoroastrians where the non-Zoroastrian refuses to part with the kindling:                       a) Two Zoroastrians must do the padyab kusti, hold the paiwand, recite part of the Sarosh Baaj and then hold a perforated appliance                about three feet (1 Gaj) above the glowing fire. At no stage must this appliance actually touch the pyre.
b) Easily ignitable substances like loban (Benzoin resin), powdered sandalwood and other easily combustible substances are spread on            the upper surface of this appliance.
c) The appliance is held above the fire until the flammable substances catch the heat of the dying pyre and burst into flames.
d) This fire on the appliance is taken by the two Zoroastrians to another open place, where they complete praying the Sarosh Baaj and            undergo ritual purification (riman) to take away the effects of contact with the defiled fire, however remote.

5) This fire brought away on the appliance is re-ignited 91 times (as explained in the “house-hold fire” below) before it is consecrated and used in the ‘Aatash Behram’.

6) As for the next 14 collection of kindling for fire temple, these are procured from the grates of the various trades-people, a segment is directly picked up from the main hearth fire and carried away for refinement. Since no contamination is attached to these fires, as in the case of the burning corpse, the collectors of these fires do not have to undergo any rituals. The collected kindling is purified a certain number of times (as explained in the “house-hold fire” below) before it is used in the Aatash Behram consecrated and used in the ‘Aatash Behram’.

Collection of the sixteenth kindling for fire temple, ‘the household fire’ from the hearth of a Zoroastrian is interesting. It is really an amalgam of 6 fires —

1) From the house of the clergy; therefore one from each, a ‘Dastur’ and another from a ‘Mobed’. That makes two;

2) Then one from the home of laity. Three fires so far;                                                                                               3) Since the hearth was lit by friction in the early days:                                                                                               a) friction caused by rubbing pieces of wood together, and,                                                                                     b) by two pieces of flint;
4) From the homes of clergy and laity, fires produced by both methods were collected. There was therefore, an amalgam of 6 fires used as one ‘house-hold fire’. (3 x 2 = 6);
5) This amalgam of fires is then used to ignite another fire by placing some flammable material wind-ward at a distance of 15” from this household fire. The resultant fire so ignited is used to cause another set of flammable materials to burst into flame and so on and so forth for 40 times;
6) Only after the preceding fire is burnt out, is the next heap set up for ignition from the resultant fire;
7) The 40th ignited fire is once further put through the entire procedure of ignition and re-ignition 144 times. The 184th fire (44=144) is then used in the Aatash Behram with the 15 acquired from the trade and pyre fires. (We will be writing next on this Blog about the unification and consecration of these 16 purified fires).

TABLE TAKEN FROM THE RELIGIOUS CEREMONIES AND CUSTOMS OF THE PARSEES By JIVANJI JAMSHEDJI MODI:

Bibliography

The Religious Ceremonies and Customs of the Parsees by Jivanji Modi,B.A., PH.D., C.I.E., Fellow of the University of Bombay (1887), Dipl. Litteris et Artibus (Sweden, 1889), Shums -Ul-Ulama (India,1893), Officier D’Acdemie (France, 1898), Officier Publique (France, 1902), Campbell Medalist, B.B.R. Asiatic Society (1918).

——–By  Heritage Architect Sanaeya Vandrewala

For years, the Parsi migration to India has been of interest to many, and I’ve been frequently asked about the arrival of the Parsi community in India. The story of the Parsi Migration to India has been passed down for generations via oral traditions and in circa 1600 was noted by a priest Bahman Hormazdyar Sanjana know as the Qissa-i-Sanjan which is an important historical document of early Parsi history in India.

It is stated in the Qissa that after the defeat of Yazdegard III (652 AD.) the last Zoroastrian Sassanian king, the faith was rendered desolate. Dasturs and laymen went into hiding for the sake of the religion. They wandered around in

Kohistan for a hundred years. A group of Zoroastrians owing to persecution fled to the town of Hormuzd (in Iran) where they spent another fifteen years. During this time the chief priest realized that he and his group of men, women and children had to leave their country. They set sail for India. In due course they sighted land and anchored on the western coast of India on an island known today as Diu. The religious refugees lived in Diu for nineteen years, after which upon the advice of their wise Dastur, they set sail to reach mainland. Thus according to the information gleaned from the Qissa, it seems that the Parsis had arrived in India in 786 AD. But by further research it was then found with supporting evidence that the correct arrival date was 936 AD.

As stated in the Qissa they were caught in a nasty storm. The Dasturs were thrown into consternation. They prayed for help and promised to build the Bahram fire if Bahram, the Yazata for victory, delivered them from this storm. Their supplication was granted and a gentle wind brought them to a point upon the Indian coastline. They sought refuge from the Hindu King Jadav Rana, which is believed to be the local ruler. It is believed that the King asked for five conditions before granting refuge to this migrant group:

1)”What are the customs of your creed, which of these are open and which concealed?”
2)”You must abandon the language of your country and adopt the speech of the realm of Hind (Term used for          India).”
3)”As to the dress of your women, they should wear garments like those of our ladies.”
4)”You must put down all your arms and weapons and cease to wear them anywhere.”
5)”When your children are wedded, the marriage knot must be tied at evening time.”

“If you give a solemn promise to observe all these, you will be given places and abodes in my city.” The Dastur readily agreed to these conditions proffered by the King who gave the Zoroastrian pilgrims fertile land to live on. A spot in this wilderness was chosen, of which the soil was excellent and there they made their abode. This abode was called Sanjan, in memory of the place they originally came from in North West Khorasan.

One day the Dastur went to the King to ask for land to build a fire-temple in order to fulfil their promise to Bahram. The land must be cleared for about three farsangs (a land measurement scale) so that the ceremonies of the Nirang (Cows urine which has been consecrated by prayer, used externally for cleansing and for internal purification) may be duly performed. Except for the wise men of the good faith, no other person belonging to another creed might be present there and then only will the fire be consecrated. The King bequeathed the land and all the unbelievers within three farsangs were removed and only people of the faith remained. For several days and months they recited the Yasnas (Act of worship, consisting of a series of invocations to all divinities of Zoroastrianism in hierarchical order) and Yashts (Hymns of praise devoted to worship of individual divinities) and worked with great energy. Several parties of Dasturs and laymen had also arrived on the spot. In their company were several alchemists. The holy fire was eventually consecrated and made sacred with all the appropriate ritual objects, Nirang and ash, which were brought from Iran. The named the fire as the Holy Iranshah in memory of their motherland.

During the next three hundred years since the Parsi Migration to India, the community grew in and around Sanjan. Gradually groups of Parsis moved out and settled in all directions fairly close to the western coastline. In this manner they spent two hundred years in prosperity, joy and peace. Five hundred years after the Parsis had arrived in India, Mahmud Begada attacked Sanjan. The Hindu King was defeated and the Parsis of Sanjan had to flee together with their fire to a hill named Bahrot. Twelve years passed since they had carried the Iranshah along with them to Bahrot. Subsequently, the fire was moved to Bansdah where it was housed for the next fourteen years.

The Qissa-i-Sanjan seems to be one of the earliest extant sources in which historical information is to be found about the life and times of the first Parsi settlers. despite a few anomalies, the Qissa still remains the main source of historical data on the first Parsi migration to India.

It is interesting to note how immigration has become relevant and also a point of contention in the present times, even though it is the most important and is irrevocably associated with human history and the progress of civilizations around the world. Maybe it is time we learn from our forefathers who exercised immense restrain, acceptance and tolerance of the differences of one another to form an all inclusive society.

Bibliography:

Dhanjisa, S and Kamerkar,M (2002) From the Iranian plateau to the shores of Gujarat: The story of Parsi settlement and absorption in India. Mumbai: Allied Publishers/K. R. Cama Oriental Institute
Edulji, H (1991) Qissa-i-Sanjan. Mumbai: K. R. Cama Oriental Institute
Mistree,K (1982) Zoroastrianism : An ethnic perspective. Bombay: Khojeste P. Mistree

Next article to follow……..
PARSIS IN INDIA-PART 2: ABSORPTION IN INDIA

                                                —–By Heritage Architect Sanaeya Vandrewala

Fire Temple —Aatash Bahram, Agiaries & Dadgahs

“O Ahura, Thy Divine Fire                                                  

Grown mighty through Asha, do we earnestly desire!

Swiftest of the swift, supremely powerful,

Giving clear help, at all times, to the faithful.

 But Mazda, Thy fire shall see through and annihilate,

With a turn of the hand, the evil and their hate.”

Fire in Zoroastrianism is the center for worship. It is a Zoroastrian belief that through veneration of fire one can create an intimate communion with God, who is the creator of this sacred fire. It is the third holy immortal and has a religious significance of being a symbol of righteousness. Prophet Zarathushtra mentions fire as the holiest of the elements to be worshiped as the source of heat, light, life and growth. He selected it as a symbol of his faith to symbolize the divine spark within. Fire, in Zoroastrianism therefore, is considered one of the most sacred elements of nature.

In ancient times, Zoroastrians had no fixed place of worship. It was in Achaemenian times, during the reign of Darius I (522-486 BC) that permanent altars were built as a place for worship. The earliest places of worship were probably sanctuaries founded by kings and nobles dedicated to Bahrām the Yazata for victory. Fire altars on stone platforms were built during Achaemenian (550 BC- 330 BC) and Sassanian times (224 AD -652 AD) and depicted in inscriptions, carvings and coins. Congregational ceremonies took place under an open sky, where the worshipers gathered. The most sacred fires were placed in secluded areas.

The western world has wrongly interpreted Zoroastrianism to be a fire-worshiping cult. The concept of the element of nature was confused, by the general population, with that of the spirit that resides within it. Fire occupies an important place amongst the elements in the religious system of Zoroastrianism. Such veneration should not be misunderstood as deity worship, as the religion is monotheistic in its belief and similar homage is paid to the other elements of nature.

There are three grades of consecrated fire in India, based on the level of the consecration of the fire enthroned in the sanctum sanctorum.

1. Aatash Bahrām (Top-most grade of Fire-Temple) :

An Aatash Bahrām is the highest grade of fire with the highest level of consecration. It is consecrated through elaborate purification ceremonies performed by Mobeds (priests). Fire from sixteen different sources are collected, purified and used after 14,000 hours of prayer ceremonies. This fire is then enthroned in the sanctum sanctorum of the Aatash Bahrām. The entire process is well spanned over a period of 18 months. Hence the Aatash Bahrām fire is no ordinary fire, but the one kindled into existence through the performance of extraordinary series of complex rituals.

Above Table Source: Dr. Sir J.J Modi, The religious ceremonies and customs of Parsees

The existing Aatash Bahrams in India:

1. Iranshah established in Sanjan in 855 AD and then finally moved to Udvada in 1742 AD, where it has stood since then;
2. Anjuman Atash Bahram in Navsari (1765 AD )
3. Dadyseth Atash Bahram in Mumbai (1783 AD )
4. Modi Atash Bahram in Surat (1823 AD)
5. Vakil Atash Bahram in Surat (1823 AD)
6. Wadia Atash Bahram in Mumbai (1830 AD)
7. Banaji Atash Bahram in Mumbai (1845 AD)
8. Anjuman Atash Bahram in Mumbai (1897 AD)

2. Atash Adaran (The next grade of Fire-Temple):

The fire in an Atash Adaran is consecrated with fewer rituals and is peculiar to the Parsi Zoroastrians. Such fires are installed in Agiaries (Sanskrit for ‘House of Fire’). This fire must be kept perpetually burning and is therefore tended by a priest at Boi ceremonies five times a day. There are hundreds of such Adarans in India with the maximum number in Mumbai. The oldest is in Navsari, installed in 1150 AD. There are no Atash Adaran fires anywhere else in the world.

3. Atash Dadgah (the third grade of Fire -Temple):

This is the third grade of fire. Its consecration is simpler as compared to the first two. This fire temple is often called a Dar-e-Meher. The Atash-e-Dadgah can be touched by both a priest and a layman but not a non-Zoroastrian.

The Architecture of Fire temples in India

Between the 18^th and 19^th centuries, seven Atash Bahrams and hundreds of Adarans and Dadgahs were built in India reflecting the prosperity of the Zoroastrian populace. All temples are based on the triadic principle. Hence the entry from an outer portico would have a corridor adjacent which is used for basic rituals and kusti prayers before entering the assembly hall and inner prayer hall. The passage adjacent to the portico acts as transitional space between the outside and the prayer hall to preserve the sanctity of hall.

The inner chamber, where the sacred fire is installed, is a square room surrounded on three sides by the prayer hall. The southern side is a dead wall, to ensure the devotees do not face the north during prayers. This is done based on the religious belief that the ‘evil’ resides in the north, hence the architectural proscription. Niches are built into the walls for ritual purity. The other three sides of the inner chamber have openings to facilitate the view of the sacred fire during prayer ceremonies, once, inside the fire temple, the prescribed Zoroastrian mandate to face east when praying is prescribed; one must face the consecrated fire when praying. The inner chamber or sanctum sanctorum has only one door for entry and exit.

The floor is generally covered with hard basalt stone, demarcated by three sets of furrows, known as ‘Pavis’ in Gujarati. The sacred fire is placed within the innermost area marked by furrows. Generally, the sanctuary is domed, with flues cut into it to facilitate the exit of smoke generated by the fire. In most of the cases the dome is a false ceiling to the pitched roof that is supported by the masonry.

Every fire temple must have within its complex, an open well that is fed by freshwater springs and should include a pomegranate tree and a date tree. The leaves of these trees are used during rituals performed during various religious ceremonies. The fire temple complex also has a place of residence for priests who serve the fire (‘Boiwalas’).

With the decline in population, the question of the continued use and maintenance of these places of worship has arisen. With no population to tend to or serve in certain areas, the community is faced with the challenge of the future existence of these structures.

References:

Godrej, P and Mistree, P (Ed) (2002) A Zoroastrian Tapestry: Art, Religion and Culture. Ahemdabad: Mapping publishing Pvt Ltd.

Masani (2001, 86) Masani,R (2001)The religion of the good life Zoroastrianism. London: George Allen and Unwin Ltd.

Mistree,K (1982) Zoroastrianism : An ethnic perspective. Bombay: Khojeste P. Mistree

Motafram, R (1984) Zoroastrianism Vol III: Light on Zoroastrianism. Mumbai: The trustees of the Parsi Punchayat funds and properties, Bombay.

Rivetna,R (Ed) (2002) The legacy of Zarathrushtra:An introduction to religion , history and culture of the Zoroastrians. Illinois: Federation of Zoroastrian association of North America

                                                     —–By Heritage Architect Sanaeya Vandrewala

The pledge made at Navjote  by a Zoroastrian adherent:

“I pledge myself to the faith of Mazda…

I pledge myself to the well-conceived thought

I pledge myself to the well-spoken word

I pledge myself to the well performed deed…

To Ahura Mazda I ascribe all good.”

Every Zoroastrian child, boy or girl is initiated into the religion with the Navjote Ceremony. The word ‘Navjote’ is derived from the words ‘nav’ and ‘zote’ which means “a new person offering prayers” (Rivetna, 2002). At the Navjote Ceremony the child is invested with the ‘Sudreh’ the sacred shirt and the ‘Kusti’ sacred girdle. From that day on the child is to wear both the Sudreh and the Kusti throughout his life with daily ritual prayer offering. He should follow the teachings of Zarathushtra and reaffirm his faith with daily Kusti prayers. Navjote Ceremony is the one of the most important ceremonies performed in a Zoroastrian child’s life. It is tied three times around the waist as a reminder of the pledge of Good Thoughts, Good Words, and Good Deeds. Now the Zarathushtra is ready to serve as a soldier of God and ready to fight evil (See Figure 1).

Significance of Sudreh :                                                                                                  

Sudreh and Kusti are symbolic emblems of the Zoroastrian faith that mark out every Zoroastrian as a true soldier always siding with the

kingdom of light and truth as well as working zealously in this material world which is always a battle between the conflicting forces of good and evil. Sudreh is made of white fabric because the colour represents purity in the Mazdayasni religion. It is made of one fold only, as the Vohuman, or the good mind, is the one creation that was first. The significance of this is explained as the Sudreh, which means the advantageous path; it needs a good mind to tread upon.

The Sudreh is made of two pieces, one in front and one at back (See Figure 2). These two parts signify the spiritual and material world. The most important being the small pouch stitched in the front, signifying the bag of righteous virtues. Zoroastrianism believes that doing good deeds is a part of everyday life. Hence the pouch needs to be filled with virtuous deeds while walking along the right path so that one’s future is secure. It should be worn directly on the skin as it acts as a shield not only from the evil spirit attacking from outside but also impurities from within.

Significance of Kusti weaving:

Kusti meaning the sacred girdle signifies the direction of light and truth that every Zoroastrian should aim for, as compared to darkness and wrong. Kusti is made of lamb’s wool, as it signifies innocence. Like the Sudreh, the Kusti is also an important symbol of Zoroastrian worship. The Kusti serves as a permanent symbol of God. Advocates of the faith mention it as a reminder to the believers of their vows for carrying out duties and responsibility towards God. Kusti shields one from all sorts of outside influences. As a girdle it contributes to the moral strength. While untying and tying it reminds one of the constant struggles against the forces of evil. It is also a symbol of initiation into the religion. Hence both Kusti and Sudreh behave as a protective shield from evil and highlight the importance of preserving the unity among the Zoroastrians all around the world.

The Kusti is cream coloured sacred cord made of lamb wool. It is wound three times around

the waist around over the Sudreh. Kusti varies from three to six yards in length. Earlier only a priest or his wife would weave the Kusti; however, today women around the country practice Kusti weaving. Kusti is woven on a special loom. Before weaving, the woollen yarn has to be spun fine (See Figure 3). For weaving double-ply warp is stretched on the loom. Warping is done using loom accessories. The final product of the Kusti is very narrow; the heads are made with thread. While weaving, the weaver usually covers his/her head and recites prayers softly. Plaiting at both ends finishes the ends of the kusti. It is then bleached using sulphur, washed, flattened and then rolled and tied

These traditional intangibles are a part of the Zoroastrian cultural heritage and needs to be preserved. The significance of these traditions and continuation in practice is necessary to be maintained for these traditions to be passed onto the future generations.

—————– – By Heritage Architect Sanaeya Vandrewala.

“According to the religion of Zarathushtra, every

 human being is mortal, and death is destined for all.

Death is seen as a transformation and total destruction.

It is the passing way of spiritual elements from the physical body.”

Zoroastrianism emphasizes on maintaining sacredness of the creations and all elements of nature. Pollution of the creation is seen as an act of evil. The dead body is considered as a source of contamination of both human beings and nature around us. To maintain this balance, the dead body should be disposed in such a way that the purity of the four elements of nature, earth, water, fire and air is not endangered. Thus over centuries, a method of total disintegration of organic matter and decomposition was evolved, as sought by the religion (Godrej and Mistree, 2002).

The Indo-Iranians practiced burial of their dead. However after the first millennium BC, the method of exposure to the sun and scavengers replaced burial. In ancient times the body would be carried to a hill top away from human settlements, leaving the dead there for the scavengers to feed on. Centuries later the Zoroastrians devised a method of disposal by using a cylindrical stone structure called Dokhma also known as Tower of Silence (Godrej and Mistree, 2002, 326). Therefore, the best way of disposing the dead without polluting the elements of nature, as mentioned in the Vendidad, is Khurshed Nagirashni or Dokhmenashini that is exposure to the sun in a Dokhma (Motafaram 1984).

The earliest accounts of the disposal of the dead as per the Zoroastrian faith is as mentioned by Greek Historian Herodotus in mid-5th century BCE Histories of Herodotus, but the use of towers is first documented in the early 9th century BCE. (Boyce, 1979)

The English language term “Tower of Silence” is a term attributed to Robert Murphy, a translator for the British colonial government of India in the early 19th century. (Stausburg,2004). So I would like to encourage my readers to refer to the term now as ‘Dokhma’ or ‘Doongerwadi’ even during their verbal communications.

A Dokhma is a circular well and a platform made entirely of stone slabs around the inside of the tower, about 90 m in circumference. This platform is divided into three rows of shallow open receptacles corresponding with the three moral precepts of the Zoroastrian religious belief Humata Hukata Huvarshta, which is Good Thoughts, Good Words, and Good Deeds. The first row is for male corpses, second for females and third for children. The deep central well, which is the ‘Bhandar’, is about 45m in circumference and also paved in stone slabs. This well is used for depositing bones.

See Figure 1 & 2

The corpse is placed in the Tower of Silence where it is exposed to the unlimited creation of the sky. The sun and birds of prey together quicken the process of decay more effectively. The corpse is eaten by the birds and the rest is decomposed by the sun. This method is not only cost effective but also ecological and hygienic. The big bones left in the well naturally disintegrate into fine powder due to the sun’s rays, (Mistree, 1982).

See Figure 3

There are holes in the inner sides of the well through which the rain water is carried out into four underground drains. These drains are connected to underground wells that are covered with a thick layer of sand, gravel and charcoal in order to purify the water before it reaches the earth so that Mother Earth is not defiled.

See Figure 4

These towers are generally built on tops of hills to give easy access to birds and exposure to the sun. This method of the disposal of the dead has been used since ancient times. The reason why this method has been used and survived for so long is not only for religious but also ecological significance. The method of Dokhmenashini is preferred over ground burial, cremation and water burial.

The holy Vendidad which is the anti-demonic law given by prophet Zarathushtra (Nariman,nd,4) states that the dead body should be exposed to the rays of the sun in order to help in emancipation or liberation of the soul. This process, as mentioned before, assists in maintaining the purity of the elements of nature. One of the teachings of Zoroastrian religion is that nothing should be wasted. Hence even a dead body is put to good use, as it is consumed by carnivores. It is considered as the last deed of charity on earth. Therefore for a Parsi Zoroastrian Dokhmenashini is the only way for the disposal of the dead (Katgara et al.1999).

There are five fundamental principles in Zoroastrian method for the disposal of the dead. : Goodness, Unity, Rationality, Charity, Self –sacrifice and Purity (Dabu 1994).

The advantage of the system is stated as follows:

1. Speed: Quick disposal of the body
2. Economy: Costs nothing, no cost of fuel, grave and maintenance
3. Equality: Both rich and poor are treated on the same level without distinction
4. Hygiene: None of the four elements are polluted and sanitation of the town is preserved
5. Charity: Natural feed to hungry scavengers (Though the author of the article would like to argue that the main idea is exposure to the sun, where scavengers only help increase the pace of the process. Therefore feeding the scavengers and hence the use of the word charity is a by product and not the main intent of the method.)

Mumbai has a complex on a hilltop containing five Dokhmas, Sagri, Bungli’s and ancillary facilities used during the funeral ceremony. Established in 1672 this entire complex expands 54 acres.

The five Dokhmas in the complex are:

1. Modi Hirji Vatchagandy Dokhma (1672-73 AD)
2. Maneckji Nowroji Setts Dokhma (1756 AD)
3. Anjuman Dokhma (1778 AD)
4. Framji Cowasji Banaji Dokhma (1832 AD)
5. Cowasji Edulji Bisni Dokhma (1844 AD)

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Dabu, K (2001) Handbook of information on Zoroastrianism. Nashik: The founder of the boys’ town.

Godrej, P and Mistree, P (Ed) (2002) A Zoroastrian Tapestry: Art, Religion and Culture.

Ahemdabad: Mapping publishing Pvt Ltd.

Katgara, Z and Katgara, M and Vatcha, M (1999) Dokhmenashini and Khurshed Nagirashni. Ahemdabad: Dr Hafez Dalal and Zarine Noshir Khambata

Mistree,K (1982) Zoroastrianism : An ethnic perspective. Bombay: Khojeste P. Mistree

Motafram, R (1984) Zoroastrianism Vol III: Light on Zoroastrianism. Mumbai: The trustees of the Parsi Punchayat funds and properties, Bombay.

Nariman, F (nd) ‘Zoroastrianism- Faith of the Parsis in India.’ (Unpublished)

Stausberg, Michael (2004), “Bestattungsanlagen”, Die Religion Zarathushtras, 3, Stuttgart: Kohlhammer,