This clay cylinder, housed at the UN Headquarters in USA, is inscribed in Akkadian* cuneiform script used in and
around 539 B.C.E. when Cyrus effectively routed the Neo-Babylonian Emperor, Nabonidus (536-539 BCE); thus extinguishing the dynasty. The cylinder was found in 1879 buried at the gate to Babylon, by an expedition under the auspices of the British Museum. The Museum later gifted it to the United Nations.
The cylinder is damaged in parts and parts of the inscription are missing. However, a large part of the cylinder is intact. These inscriptions are to be read in context of the society and beliefs of the relevant time and may in parts seem absurd or implausible today. In the text below, the missing parts are left open; thus “those who dwelt in … … … … …, all the kings of the West Country, who dwelt in tents, brought me their heavy tribute and kissed my feet in Babylon. From … … … … … to the cities….”
The first part of the inscription speaks of how and why Cyrus marched on and took Jerusalem. The story that emerges is thus:
Marduk**, the chief God of the Babylon pantheon of that time, is disregarded and demeaned by the rulers of Babylon and finally displaced by a new Godhead. With the destruction of Marduk, his worshippers were oppressed “he brought ruin on them all by a yoke without relief.” %%
In order to protect his worshippers, Marduk “seeks an upright king of his choice. He took the hand of Cyrus, king of the city of Anshan***, and called him by his name, proclaiming him aloud for the kingship over all of everything.” %%
Marduk, then, brings the land of Guti**** and all the Median troops under Cyrus’ rule and finds that Cyrus “shepherded in justice and righteousness the black-headed people… Marduk, saw with pleasure his fine deeds and true heart, and ordered that he should go to Babylon. He had him take the road to Tintir (Babylon), and, like a friend and companion, he walked at his side.” %% So, Cyrus enters Babylon with his troops and all of Tintir, Samaria (Sumeria) and Akkad cede to him and the worship of Marduk is reestablished.
Thus ends the first part of the cylinder. In the second part, the cylinder introduces Cyrus, his ancestors and progeny and speaks of his greatness. In the third part, Cyrus reads his charter. The rights and freedoms he grants can be explained in today’s terms by what we in India enshrine as ‘Fundamental Rights’ in the Indian Constitution — Right to life and limb, Right to follow an occupation of one’s choosing, Right to follow one’s religious beliefs, Right to Property, Right to live in place of one’s choice. He promises to penalize oppressors including his Governors and officers who disrespect ‘traditions, customs and religions of others’, ‘take possession of movable and landed properties of the others by force or without compensation’, ‘who uses unpaid, forced labour’, ‘slavery’ ‘penalizes a person for his or her relatives’ faults’.
(Preamble)
The text of the Charter forming the third part of the cylinder:
At the coronation:
“Now that I put the crown of kingdom of Persia I announce that I will respect the traditions, customs and religions of the nations of my empire and never let any of my governors and subordinates look down on or insult them. I will impose my monarchy on no nation. Each is free to accept it, and if any one of them rejects it, I never resolve on war to reign. I will never let anyone oppress any others, and if it occurs, I will take his or her right back and penalize the oppressor. I will never let anyone take possession of movable and landed properties of the others by force or without compensation. Until I am alive, I prevent unpaid, forced labor. Today, I announce that everyone is free to choose a religion. People are free to live in all regions and take up a job provided that they never violate other’s rights. No one can be penalized for his or her relatives’ faults. I prevent slavery and my governors and subordinates are obliged to prohibit exchanging men and women as slaves within their own ruling domains. Such a tradition should be exterminated the world over”
Post Coronation:
Cyrus read the Charter of Freedom out after he put on the crown:
Now that I put the crown of kingdom of Persia I announce that I will respect the traditions, customs and religions of the nations of my empire and never let any of my governors and subordinates look down on or insult them. I will impose my monarchy on no nation. Each is free to accept it, and if any one of them rejects it, I never resolve on war to reign. I will never let anyone oppress any others, and if it occurs, I will take his or her right back and penalize the oppressor. I will never let anyone take possession of movable and landed properties of the others by force or without compensation. Until I am alive, I prevent unpaid, forced labor. Today, I announce that everyone is free to choose a religion. People are free to live in all regions and take up a job provided that they never violate other’s rights. No one can be penalized for his or her relatives’ faults. I prevent slavery and my governors and subordinates are obliged to prohibit exchanging men and women as slaves within their own ruling domains. Such a tradition should be exterminated the world over. My numerous troops moved about undisturbed in the midst of Babylon. I did not allow anyone to terrorize the land of Sumer and Akkad. I kept in view the needs of Babylon and all its sanctuaries to promote their well-being. I lifted their unbecoming yoke. Their dilapidated dwellings I restored. I put an end to their misfortunes.
I am Cyrus, King of the world, great king, mighty king, king of Babylon, king of the land of Sumer and Akkad, king of
the four quarters, son of Camboujiyah (Cambyases), great king, king of Anshân, grandson of Kourosh (Cyrus), great king, king of Anshân, descendant of Chaish-Pesh# (Teispes), great king, king of Anshân, progeny of an unending royal line, whose rule Bel and Nabu cherish, whose kingship they desire for their hearts, pleasure. When I well -disposed, entered Babylon, I set up a seat of domination in the royal palace amidst jubilation and rejoicing. Marduk the great god, caused the big-hearted inhabitations of Babylon to … … … … … me, I sought daily to worship him.
At my deeds Marduk, the great lord, rejoiced and to me, Kourosh (Cyrus), the king who worshipped him, and to Camboujiyah (Cambyases), my son, the offspring of (my) loins, and to all my troops he graciously gave his blessing, and in good sprit before him we glorified exceedingly his high divinity. All the kings who sat in throne rooms, throughout the four quarters, from the Upper to the Lower Sea, those who dwelt in … … … … …, all the kings of the West Country, who dwelt in tents, brought me their heavy tribute and kissed my feet in Babylon. From … … … … … to the cities of Ashur, Susa##, Agade (Akkadian) and Eshnuna###, the cities of Zamban, Meurnu%, Der as far as the region of the land of Gutium, the holy cities beyond the Tigris whose sanctuaries had been in ruins over a long period, the gods whose abode is in the midst of them, I returned to their places and housed them in lasting abodes.
I gathered together all their inhabitations and restored (to them) their dwellings. The gods of Sumer and Akkad whom Nabounids had, to the anger of the lord of the gods, brought into Babylon. I, at the bidding of Marduk, the great lord, made to dwell in peace in their habitations, delightful abodes.
May all the gods whom I have placed within their sanctuaries address a daily prayer in my favour before Bel and Nabu, that my days may be long, and may they say to Marduk my lord. May Cyrus the King, who reveres thee, and Camboujiyah (Cambyases) my son…
Now that I put the crown of kingdom of Persia, Babylon, and the nations of the four directions on the head with the help of Ahura Mazda, I announce that I will respect the traditions, customs and religions of the nations of my empire and never let any of my governors and subordinates look down on or insult them until I am alive. From now on, till God grants me the kingdom favor, I will impose my monarchy on no nation. Each is free to accept it, and if any one of them rejects it, I never resolve on war to reign. Until I am the king of Persia, Babylon, and the nations of the four directions, I never let anyone oppress any others, and if it occurs, I will take his or her right back and penalize the oppressor.
And until I am the monarch, I will never let anyone take possession of movable and landed properties of the others by force or without compensation. Until I am alive, I prevent unpaid, forced labor. Today, I announce that everyone is free to choose a religion. People are free to live in all regions and take up a job provided that they never violate other’s rights.
No one could be penalized for his or her relatives’ faults. I prevent slavery and my governors and subordinates are obliged to prohibit exchanging men and women as slaves within their own ruling domains. Such traditions should be exterminated the world over.
I implore to God to make me succeed in fulfilling my obligations to the nations of Persia, Babylon, and the ones of the four directions.”
*Exact location of Akkad is unknown today but is perhaps aps, between Mari and Babylon along the Euphrates).
** Labashi-Marduk was the grandson of Nebuchadnezzar born of his daughter and her husband Neriglissar. Marduk was still a child when he became king of Babylon. Within nine months of his coronation he was killed in a conspiracy between Nabonidus and son Belshazzar with the court nobles. The meaning of Marduk as the true ruler is born out also by the text of the cylinder in its first part.
*** Modern city Tall-i-Malyan. Known to Sumerians as Anzan. Ancient Persian city in the Province of Fars (in South-western Iran), north of Shiraz and west of Persepolis. Archaeological finds at Tall-i-Malyan and early Elamite texts place it as one of the earliest, urban states of Mesopotamian region, the earliest capital of Elam (4th century) and Persia (7th century).
**** Guti or Gutians or Quti an ancient nomadic people from near the Zagros mountains. The exact location of these people is not certain (whether south or east of Babylon) and is also possible that the name does not refer to the same set of people in the various texts. The fall of Akkad is attributed to conflicts with the Guti in the 3rd Millennium BCE. The Guti formed the dynasty of Sumer and ruled over Sumer.
Under Cyrus, his general, Gubaru was made Governor of Guti
# Chaish Pesh: one who reveals light, day break.
## Modern Shush. Susa (Persian&Syriac), Shushan (Book of Esther), Susiane (Greek) in the Khuzistan (Iran) near the Zagros mountains between the rivers Kharkheh Kur and Dez, has witnessed empires grow and destroyed— Proto-elamite, Elamite, 1st Persian, Seleucid, Parthian and Sassanian.
### Modern Tell Asmar is in Diyala valley, Iraq. Ancient city-state in central Mesopotamia. Sumerian culture and once its city.
% couldn’t locate.
%%As more recent translation by Irving Finkel, Assistant Keeper, Department of the Middle East, British Museum
]]>————- By Conservation Architect Sanaeya Vandrewala.
In earlier times, both Iranians and Indians were part of the same tribe identified as the Proto-Indo-Iranians belonging to the Indo-European family. With the roots in the Caucasoid, that is the Indo-European family, it then branches out to form the Nordics, Alpines and the Mediterranean. The Alpines bifurcate into Armenoids and the Iranoids that is the Proto Indo-Iranian family roughly around the 4th Millennium BC. They wandered and settled on the southern Russian Steppes. After the passing of the 3rd Millennium BC the group again divides into Iranians settled on the Iranian plateau circa 1200 BC and the other forms Vedic Aryans which then merge into the Indus valley civilization circa 1500 BC.
The ancient name of the country of the Iranian people has appeared in Avesta, is airya, airyana. This Avestan term appears as ērān, irān in the later speech. Hence, this term Iran was generally applied to the various land and countries to which the Iranian people migrated in their long history. In Latin, the name for the entire empire was Persia and was thus referred to in all western literature. Persia stems from Pars a province in ancient Iran. However, since ancient times the endonym for the empire has always been Iran. In 1935, during the modern history of the country, name Iran was internationally accepted and has been used ever since. In this text, Iran is addressed to mean ancient Iran, as in the pre-Arab conquest of 652 AD.
Pre-Achaemenian Iran
This period in the Indo-European family began in the middle of the 2nd millennium BC forming a national identity. Prior to this different ethnic groups had occupied the region namely the Elamites and Sumerians in Mesopotamia to its west having a strong influence in culture and religion of the region.
Immigration of the Medes and the Persians
Small groups of nomadic, horse-riding peoples speaking Indo-European languages began moving into the Iranian cultural area from Central Asia near the end of the 2nd millennium BC. Three major groups are identifiable the Scythians, the Medes and the Persians. The Scythians settled in the northern region of the Zagros Mountains and led a semi-nomadic life. The Medes and the Persians settled on the eastern side of the Zagros Mountains. During the 7th century BC, the Persians were led by Hakamanish (Achaemenes, in Greek), ancestor of the Achaemenian dynasty. His descendant, Cyrus II laid the foundations of the most extensive empire in the ancient world by combining Median and Persian forces.
The Achaemenian Dynasty, 550-330 BC
By 546 BC Cyrus had defeated Croesus, the Lydian king of legendary wealth and had secured control of the Aegean coast of Asia Minor, Armenia, and the Greek colonies along the Levant. Moving east, Cyrus took Parthia, Chorasmis, and Bactria. He besieged and captured Babylon in 539 BC and released the Jews who had been held captive there and favoured the rebuilding of the temple of Jerusalem, thus earning his immortalization in the Book of Isaiah.
His successors were less successful. Cambyses II conquered Egypt but was defeated in a revolt led by a priest, Gaumata, who usurped the throne in 522 BC but was later overthrown by a member of a lateral branch of the Achaemenian family, Darius I (also known as Darayarahush or Darius the Great). The limits of the empire were restricted to Asia Minor due to the defeat of the armies led by Darius to the Greeks at the Battle of Marathon in 490 BC to control the rebellious Greek mainland forces under his patronage.
The Achaemenians thereafter consolidated areas firmly under their control. It was under the leadership of Cyrus and Darius, who used efficient administrative planning and a humanitarian approach, established the greatness of the Achaemenians and established their strong hold and expanded to form one of the largest empires in the ancient world. Trading was well established and was widespread and under the Achaemenian rule, this was supported by well-organized infrastructure which in turn assisted the trades growth further. Other accomplishments of Darius’ reign included codification of the data, a universal legal system upon which much of later Iranian law would be based, and construction of a new state capital at Persepolis, where yearly tribute at the festival of spring equinox was celebrated with much pomp and splendour. Persepolis, in its art and architecture, celebrates the king and the office of the monarch and reflected Darius’s perception of himself as the leader of conglomerates of people to whom he had given a new and single identity. Achaemenian art and architecture found in Persepolis is at once distinctive and also highly eclectic. The iconography at Persepolis symbolizes the great artistic style of the Achaemenian art and architecture.
The Seleucids, 331-247 BC
Alexander the Great had envisioned a new global empire derived out of the fusion of Greek and Iranian cultures.
This he began achieving by the systematic accelerated the dissolution of the Achaemenian Empire. He was first accepted as leader by the fractious Greeks in 336 BC and by 334 BC had advanced to Asia Minor. In quick succession, he took Egypt, Babylonia, and then, over the course of two years, obtained the core of the Achaemenian Empire, Susa, Ecbatana, and Persepolis, the last of which he burned.
In 323 BC Alexander was struck with fever and died in Babylon, leaving no heir. His empire was divided among four of his generals. Seleucus, one of Alexander’s generals, who became ruler of Babylon in 312 BC, gradually re-conquered most of Iran. Under the command of Antiochus I, son of Seleucus’, Greeks occupies regions within Iran and brought Hellenistic influences in art, architecture and urban planning.
The Parthian Dynasty, 248 BC-224 AD
The Seleucids were constantly challenged from outside the empire by both Rome and Ptolemy from Egypt however the threat from within was the most damaging. In 247 BC the Parthian dynasty was established by Arsaces from the province of Fars who challenged the Seleucid governor. During the second century, the Parthians were able to extend their rule to Bactria, Babylonia, Susiana, and Media, while under Mithradates II (123-87 BC) Parthian conquests stretched from India to Armenia. After the victories of Mithradates II, the Parthians began to claim descent from both the Greeks and the Achaemenians. They spoke a language similar to that of the Achaemenians, used the Pahlavi script, and established an administrative system based on Achaemenian precedents.
In 224 AD Ardeshir son of priest Papak, the Parthian governor in the province of Pars overthrew the last Parthian king and established the Sassanian dynasty. The Sassanian Dynasty lasted 400 years till the Arab conquest.
The Sassanian Dynasty, 224-652 AD
The Sassanian dynasty was a unique period in the history of religion. Ardeshir Papakan (224-229 BC) as stated earlier was the founder of the dynasty. He started the unification of religion from diverse forms and practices into one monolithic structure. It was during this period that the rituals and practices went underwent a controlled change. The faith became suddenly alive because the rituals and ceremonies became understandable in the language of the day. Under Sassanian dynasty, the entire Avestan scriptures and Pahlavi commentaries were written in the new phonetic alphabet. During this period Zoroastrianism was strengthened, unified and enriched by an ever-growing body of dedicated and disciplined priests in service. Yazdegard III (632-651 AD) ascended the throne when the empire was going through a phase of the internal conflict. The Arab invasion (633-641 AD) caused the downfall of the Sassanian Empire thus bringing an end to the Zoroastrian control in Iran.
Following the invasion of Iran by Arabs, Piruz, son of Yazdegard III, escaped along with a few Persian nobles and took refuge in the Chinese imperial court. Both Piruz and his son Narseh (Chinese neh-shie) were given prominent positions in the Chinese court. The Chinese also assisted to restore a Sassanian to the throne on at least in two occasions in 670, but in vain. Narseh later reached the position of the commander of the Chinese Imperial guards and his descendants lived in China as respected princes.
Along with Mumbai, as mentioned in my previous article Sassanid Archaeological landscape of Fars region was also inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site last month. These various archaeological sites situated in different geographical locations in the Shapur I includes Firuzabad, Bishapur, and Sarvestan. Dating in between 224 to 658 CE these fortified structures, palaces, and cityscape belong to the earliest and latest times of the Sassanian Empire. Also included in this list is the capital built by the founder of the dynasty, Ardeshir Papakan, as well as a city and architectural structures of his successor, Shapur I.
As the UNESCO website observes, while the Achamenian and Parthian cultures and the art of Rome had an obvious influence on the entire archaeological site (it has made optimal use of natural landscapes); the site in its turn, significantly influenced Islamic architecture and artistic styles.
Bibliography and Citation:
- Boyce, M (1979) Zoroastrians: Their religious beliefs and practices. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
- Circle of Ancient Iran studies: http://www.cais-soas.com
- Karanjia, R. Ed (1999) Outlines of Parsi history, Zoroastrian religion and ancient Iranian art. Mumbai: Society for the promotion of Zoroastrian religious knowledge & education.
- Mistree, K (1982) Zoroastrianism: An ethnic perspective. Bombay: Khojeste P. Mistree
- Rivetna, R (Ed) (2002) The legacy of Zarathushtra: An introduction to religion, history, and culture of the Zoroastrians. Illinois: Federation of Zoroastrian Association of North America
- UNESCO world heritage list https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1568
- Image courtesy: UNESCO World Heritage Centre Gallery, Iran chamber society, Alamy.
——–By Heritage Architect Sanaeya Vandrewala
After attaining certain stability in Sanjan, the Parsis started settling in other towns along the coast of Gujarat. They settled in Navsari, Surat, Khambhat, Bharuch, Ankleshwar, and Tarapore while maintaining trade contacts with Iran. Records show that from 900 AD onwards the Parsis had settled comfortably in these towns and had become quite prosperous. Several years of peace, which had helped the Parsis survive and prosper economically and culturally were followed by 200 years of continuous disturbances. Despite these unfavorable conditions, the Parsis managed to keep their distinctive nature intact.
The most distinctive period for the Parsis during this time was the part played by Dastur Meherjirana in Emperor Akbar’s court of religious conferences (1570-1578 AD). During this period Navsari developed as one of the important centers for Parsi learning and culture. This was followed by the prosperous growth of other places as well. Surat was now being called as the City of Gold. Bharuch had become a well-known town, whereas Bilimora had transformed from a village into a thriving town.
In the 17th century, European traders started coming to western India. The port of Surat gained importance and the Parsis began to gain important positions in the East India Company. In 1661, as Bombay became a British possession, Parsis in due course became the mercantile elite of India. The success of the Parsi community was mainly dependent on its adaptable nature, lack of social religious taboos and command over the English language. The influence of Parsis on the Indian life was not prominent until the 18th century. By the end of the 18th century, a large population of Parsis had migrated towards Bombay. Parsis had merged with the Indian life and were doing well in various trades and businesses. By 19th century Parsis had become the foremost figures in Bombay establishing the first business houses in the country, they emerged at the local, district and regional level with social and economic gains that were elite based. Thus by the 20th Century Parsis along with other communities they played a major role in making Bombay the richest and the most important industrial and commercial center of India. Parsis also played an important role in the Indian freedom movement. Dadabhai Naoroji who belonged to the Parsi Zoroastrian faith was the first to represent India in the British parliament in 1892. Many other Parsis held important political positions even after independence.
The Zoroastrian refugees have come a long way. Their glorious years in Iran were followed by times of persecution, suffering, and turmoil. Their miraculous landing in India and absorbing a foreign culture, while maintaining their own identity as Parsi Zoroastrians, make it a true world culture today.
Parsi Zoroastrians have contributed in a large way towards the growth of the nation. Often starting from humble beginnings, they lived in great style but returned their wealth many-fold to the country. From shipbuilders to freedom struggle, from charitable institutions to business and enterprise; Parsis have helped not only theirs but other communities as well. They have contributed towards hospitals, schools, fire temples, trusts to promote education and fine arts extending their philanthropy to one and all. Parsis have been pioneers in industry hospitality and education. Among the earliest is the Wadia family for shipbuilding, Petit business house for laying foundation for the textile industry, Godrej business house for manufacture of household products, business house of Tata’s for industrial foundation, Dr Homi Bhabha for being the prime architect of India’s nuclear and space program, three baronets Sir , Sir Dinshaw Petit, Sir Cowasjee Jehangir and many others.
The story of the Parsi community is a story of victory of man’s undying spirit. The position and status achieved by the Parsi community have brought a strong sense of fulfillment in its members. Even though minuscule in number the community is a respected minority, advancing and achieving by merit and talent.
Mahatma Gandhi while once addressing a crowd in England in the 1940’s stated,
“I am proud of my country, India, for having produced the splendid Zoroastrian stock, in numbers beneath contempt, but in charity and philanthropy perhaps unequaled and certainly unsurpassed”. Even though dwindling in numbers, in this 21st century brings one hope for a revival of the community, which will help the Parsis rise back to a national as well as an international scene.
Bibliography:
- Dadachandji F (1995) Speeches and writings on Zoroastrian Religion, Culture, and Civilization. Karachi:Ehtesham process.
- Dhanjisa, S and Kamerkar, M (2002) From the Iranian plateau to the shores of Gujarat: The story of Parsi settlement and absorption in India. Mumbai: Allied Publishers/K. R. Cama Oriental Institute
- Khan, R (nd) Insights into the Zarathustrian religion. Mumbai: Zarathushtri Trust
- Rivetna, R (Ed) (2002) The legacy of Zarathushtra:An introduction to religion, history, and culture of the Zoroastrians. Illinois: Federation of Zoroastrian Association of North America
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